1. INTRODUCTION

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous tiny plastic particles (<5 mm) non-biodegradable and have a large surface area in the environment or the body of living things due to anthropogenic activities or fragmentation of plastic debris [1]. They can be classified as primary MPs and secondary MPs [2]. Primary MPs are used in targeted ways in small dimensions, such as microspheres incorporated into mutual care products, microfiber from textiles, or plastic pellets [3]. As raw materials for the plastic manufacturing industry, these particles enter the environment through various substance routes, including sewage discharge, industrial processes, or accidental spills [4]. Primary MPs are those that are made to be smaller than 5 mm and are primarily present in textiles, medications, and personal hygiene items such as body and face washes. Primary MPs can also have polyethylene (PE) particles, polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) intentionally added to cosmetics and medical products. These MPs can be used for various purposes such as peeling, use as a facial scrub, or filler, in some cases dosage, and enter the aquatic ecosystem through various sources [5].

The possible source of MPs released through the sewage system can occur when manufacturing synthetic fabrics, clothing, personal care micro beads products, and other small plastic particles wash away substances contained in household waste, enter the drain, and eventually end up in a sewage treatment plants [6]. Despite several treatment processes, MPs can still penetrate and spread. It is discharged into rivers, lakes, and seas. This is MPs in aquatic ecosystems plastic resin talc or pellets spillage [7]. Accidental spills can happen during shipping and handling emissions of these tiny plastic particles and the aqua bodies go with the flow and contribute to MPs pollution. Secondary MPs degradation and crushing of giant plastic articles [8]. Over time, we will generate large amounts of plastic waste, including bottles, bags, and fishing nets, shattered into small pieces, crumbling, ultraviolet (UV), and mechanical effort [9].

Significantly, it was shown that secondary MPs make up the bulk of MPs and that their prevalence in waters increases in direct proportion to the amount of plastic debris that is added, originating from various sources. This constant transition of secondary MPs occurs because of their smaller sizes; MPs have a greater likelihood of breaking down into nanoplastics, which could represent greater environmental hazards, when exposed to the environment [10] (Table 1). The separation of plastic waste is a complex process influenced by many factors. Environmental factors can have significant impacts dimensional scale of MPs and their characters [11]. Diffusion of sewage sludge is the rest of the material, the sewage treatment plant, and land [12]. Sewage sludge may contain clothing synthetic fibers, MPs from personal care products (e.g., exfoliation of microbeads or MP particles), or other small plastic debris recorded between wastewater treatment circuits. If so, sludge is spread as soil on farmland could bring MPs to the world; transportable soil flows into bodies of water through drains or leaches out [13]. These are the primary sources of MPs, emphasizing the importance of understanding the deal with different paths through which MPs find their way into the water surroundings. The trial is developed to improve wastewater treatment processes. To minimize the release of MPs from sewage and to develop strategies for adequately managing and disposing of plastic resin pellets to prevent spills [14], regulations and guidelines are being developed to address the utilization and discarding of plastic-based items that contribute to MPs contamination, such as microbeads in personal care items [15].

Table 1. Distribution characteristics of MPs in environmental ecosystems. [Click here to view]

By addressing these primary sources, along with other sources of MPs such as plastic waste mismanagement and fragmentation of huge plastic items, it is possible to mitigate MPs into the aquatic ecosystem and reduce their reverberation on ecosystems and human health [16]. MPs come in many shapes, including circular, fragment, and fibers. Most (except for intentionally created microspheres) are created by the disintegration of larger plastics (macroplastics). MPs break down into smaller pieces over time and eventually become nanoplastics [17]. MPs are, therefore, primarily a transitional state between macrodebris and nanomaterials. It has been estimated that the fragmentation of spherical MPs could generate over ten times more nanoparticles. Understanding MP’s origin, fate, and impact requires looking at the continuum from plastic products or waste to MPs and nanoplastics [18]. Primary MPs are small pieces of intentionally manufactured plastic. They are mainly used in facial cleansers and cosmetics or air jet technology [19]. Sometimes, it has been reported to be used medically as a drug vector. MPs “scrubbers” used in exfoliating hand cleansers and facial scrubs have replaced traditionally used natural ingredients such as almond shells, oatmeal, and pumice stone. Primary MPs have also been produced for air jet technology. Made from acrylic, melamine, or polyester, MPs cleaners are sprayed from machines, engines, and boat hulls to remove rust and paint [6]. These scrubbers are often contaminated with heavy metals (HMs) such as cadmium, chromium, and lead as they are used repeatedly until they reduce size and cutting ability. Many companies are reducing microbe and production. However, bioplastic microbeads, which have a long degradation cycle similar to regular plastic, are still prevalent, and the United States is phasing out toothpaste and other washable cosmetics increase [20]. It was phased out in 2015, but since 2015, many industries have started using it instead. Use Food and Drug Administration-approved flushable metalized plastic glitter as a primary polish [16].

Secondary plastics are small pieces of plastic from large plastic wastes that end up in the ocean or on land. Over time, physical, biological, and chemical photo-degradation peaks, including photo-oxidation from exposure to sunlight, meaning that the structural integrity of plastic waste will eventually become undetectable to the naked eye [21]. This process of breaking large plastic materials into smaller pieces is called fragmentation. MPs are thought to continue to break down and shrink, but the smallest MPs found in the ocean are reportedly 1.6 µm (6.3 × 10⁻⁵ inches) in diameter. The growth of irregularly shaped MPs suggests that fragmentation is the leading cause. It has been observed that more MPs can form from biodegradable polymers than from non-biodegradable polymers in both seawater and freshwater [22]. By reviewing many literatures, there have been many studies conducted on the impact of MP in ecosystems [23]; however. there has not been enough depth examination of the source, impact on MPs in different environmental ecosystem, and their analysis method. Therefore, the present review provided board range of impact of MPs in ecosystem, factor influencing MPs toxicity, its method of analysis, national and international status and awareness of MPs pollution. By providing insights into prevention and control strategies, the study aims to contribute to the long-term ecological sustainability of natural environments.

2. MPS TOXICITY

MPs’ toxicity refers to the potentially harmful effects of MPs on organisms and ecosystems when ingested or come into contact with living organisms. MPs absorb persistent organic and inorganic pollutants (such as toxic metals) in the natural environment [15]. This phenomenon has been exploited to develop passive polymer-based samplers for dissolved organic contaminants. However, the adsorption of contaminants to MPs surfaces can be affected by competing interactions with other chemicals present. The increased surface area of MPs compared to the original waste increases the potential for contaminant absorption [14]. These chemical particle distributions usually decreased in particle size, except for minor nanoplastics, where aggregation may have reduced the cumulative surface area. Although most of these studies have investigated organic pollutants (OP), they also found interactions between mercury and MPs, resulting in toxicological effects on fish [24]. There is ongoing research to understand better the toxicity of MPs and their potential influence on different creatures, including aquatic and terrestrial species.

MPs cause bodily harm to the organism and can accumulate in the whole body. Organisms can cause constipation, tissue damage, or disturbance of normal state physiological processes [25]. MPs can adsorb and accumulate toxic chemicals in the environment, accordingly measures against persistent OPs and HMs. These chemicals can leach and enter tissues through MPs if swallowed, possibly microorganisms causing toxic effects such as synthetic particles may lead to chronic inflammation and increase the risk of neoplasia [26]. MPs have been proven to have an inducing effect on immune response and inflammation creature. Inflammation can cause health problems, including tissue damage and weakened immune function [27]. MPs can be accidentally ingested by marine organisms such as confused creatures and organism’s leftovers. This ingestion can cause improper diet or eating habits resulting in lower growth, lower energy imbalance, and malnutrition [27]. MPs can affect nature, reproductive success, and survival, possibly causative organism population-level impacts and changes in ecological processes [26]. Considering different environments have different biological communities, ambient circumstances, and interactions with pollutants, different ecosystems are affected by MPs in different ways. In light of these variables, MPs behave differently in every ecosystem, having different impacts on both the environment and organisms (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Schematic illustration showing the different sources of MPs and their possible mechanism of action involved in human toxicity. Adopted from Thapliyal et al. [155]. [Click here to view]

3. FACTORS INFLUENCING MPS TOXICITY

The most significant sign of the possible impact of MPs on various species, bioavailability, is dependent on the characteristics of the pollutant as well as the organisms preferred means of feeding [28]. In contrast to the majority of selective forgers, species that display generalist feeding preferences and employ restricted criteria to distinguish food from other substances, such as predators, are more likely to consume MPs that bear similarities to their natural prey [29]. Physical characteristics influence the shape and movement of MPs in the aquatic environment, which modifies their distribution and impacts bioavailability by resembling natural materials and inflicting varying degrees of physical harm on the organism. The size, color, density, and form of MPs are the most researched physical characteristics, and each attribute contributes differently to the adverse impacts (Table 2).

Table 2. Abundance of MPs and its properties. [Click here to view]

4. IMPACT OF MPS

4.1. Soil Ecosystems

The adequate management of plastic materials has led to the relative abundance of MPs in the terrestrial system, thus affecting the microbes, plants, and other organisms directly or indirectly dependent on them (Fig. 2). MPs are a potent risk to the soil microbiome as these microbial bodies being sensitive try to adapt the changes in soil properties and substrate leading to disordered functions [71]. Minute plastics have the tenacity to be an obstacle in the interaction between soil-plant and soil-microbe, along with having a negative impact on the abiotic characteristics of the soil. The size of MPs similar to the native soil particles brought about substantially little difference with respect to control compared to other varied-sized particles [72]. The biophysical environment of the soil, namely, water-holding capacity, the functional relationship between water-soluble aggregates-microbial activity, and bulk density, is altered due to the addition of MPs into the land, ultimately leading to a disturbed terrestrial ecosystem. Along with this, specific idiosyncratic effects such as polymer type, particle structure, and status of surface oxidation can have varying effects on the biota of soil [73]. A novel study on the history of long-term fertilization and its relation with MPs-based soil alteration showed a genotypic view of the interaction between MPs and soil microbiome. Different fertilization histories can change the impact of MPs exposure on the structure, function, and composition of the microorganism residing within the soil [74].

Figure 2. Soil ecosystem comprises earthworm biome, microorganisms, and unwanted MPs. [Click here to view]

Considering the soil texture MPs could also majorly affect the hydraulic characteristics of the soil. Integrating MPs into different kinds of soils decreased the saturated hydraulic properties by 69.79%, 95.79%, and 77.11% for loam, sand, and clay, respectively. Minute plastics can decrease the availability of pores by changing the distribution of soil pore size [75]. Many soil processes are particularly susceptible to changes in soil structure, which can have further effects on soil characteristics, microbial activity, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and nutrient cycling. MPs have been found to affect the DOM, bulk density, water-holding capacity, and the functional connection between microbial activity and water-stabilizing aggregates in the soil in earlier studies [76]. Nevertheless, not much work has been done to describe how MPs affect soil microbes, which are the main agents in biogeochemical cycling. The three most significant GHGs that affect climate are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), and one of the main sources and sinks of GHGs is farming [77,78].

Similarly, Zhang et al. (2022) concluded that adding about 0.01% and 0.1% MPs in the soil did not alter the respiration of soil microbes; however, a concentration of 1.0% MPs increased CO₂ emission in the soil. Also, the expression of the functional genes of the microbes degrading organic carbon declined under MPs stress [79]. To study the impact of MPs in the rhizospheric soil, Dong et al. (2021) experimented and concluded that MPs, along with arsenic inhibited the activity of acid phosphatase, dehydrogenase, peroxidase, protease, and soil urease by affecting the tertiary structure of enzyme along with the reduction of available phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations in the soil [80]. The diversity and richness of microbes on the surface of MPs were considerably less than those near “rhizosphere-like” soil. Moreover, the humus horizon had relatively lower microbial diversity and richness than the eluvial level. Microbes such as Chloreflexi, Mortierellomycota, and Acidobacteria were abundantly present around “rhizosphere-like” soil, while microbes such as Basidiomycota and Cyanobacteria were abundantly present on MPs surfaces. Furthermore, the negative impact of MPs above and below the soil ecosystem involves the germination of few seeds, reduced shoot height, and decreased biomass at the surface level. While at the ground level, the pH of the soil is decreased, along with the reduction of root and earthworm biomass [81]. Therefore, MPs undoubtedly harm the soil ecosystem, affecting the directly connected organisms and the indirectly attached organisms related via the food chain.

The prominently found MPs in the soil are PE, PP, polyamide, PS, and polyvinyl chloride. The factors such as polymer type, the particle size of soil and polymer, soil, texture, state of surface oxidation state, and long-term fertilization genotypic traits. MPs affect the decomposition and mineralization of the soil's organic carbon and plant growth and cause negative impact on the biophysical and chemical state of the soil. MPs alter the soil–water cycle, nutrient availability, worsen the scarcity of soil water, and have an impact on the movement of pollutants into deep soil through cracking. Because MPs enhance water-holding capacity and water-stability aggregates and nutrient availability associated with the humus content, they may lead to an increase in fulvic and humic acids (Tables 3 and 4).

Table 3. Abundance of MPs in various types of soil. [Click here to view]

Table 4. Brief insight into the prominent MPs present within the soil ecosystem. [Click here to view]

4.2. Marine Ecosystem

Over the past years, marine ecosystems have seen an increase in the accumulation of MPs in various water bodies, including, coastal areas, rivers, seas, oceans, and polar regions [82]. Several land and marine activities are responsible for causing this high rise in the concentration of MPs. Domestic and industrial applications lead to the primary source of MPs. In contrast, the conversion of vast chunks of plastic into smaller fragments of plastics leads to a secondary source of the same (Fig. 3) [83]. When the MPs reach in water surface, they perform three different steps. The first step is called the physical step which involved sedimentation, accumulation (spatial and temporal), and migration of MPs. In the second step called the chemical step involving adsorption and degradation of MPs in water. In the final step, they performed biodegradation, translocation, and ingestion in water. This defined behavior of MPs holds the ability to alter the dynamics of the water system [84]. The aqueous body's distribution mechanism, exchange, and uptake of the MPs mainly depend on the particle density. The polymer density is a critical determinant that specifies the vertical distribution of these tiny plastics within the water column, and their interactions with aqueous species define the availability of buoyant MPs at greater depths [85]. The benthic region experiences the highest concentration of the polymers leading to the availability of more proportions of MPs in the body of benthic invertebrates. For instance, the species Sabella spallanzanii had about 42% of polymer, and Hermodice carunculata had about 93% of polymer content in their bodies with polymer concentrations depending on the feeding strategies of individual species [86]. Not only on benthic organisms but also on coral reefs, these MPs have quite adverse effects. When exposed to MPs, coral reefs can cause various biological effects, from mucus production to feeding impairment and changed gene expression, even though reefs can ingest polymers such as PP [87].

Figure 3. Sources of marine MPs. [Click here to view]

The other species that are prominently found in the aquatic system are microzooplankton. Likewise, MPs have a detrimental impact on these bodies as with the increase in the concentration of MPs, the body size, biomass, and the number of planktonic ciliates reduced sharply which they come across the feeding process of the species along with this MPs also alter the microbial loop around the region [88]. In the case of marine copepods, MPs act as carrier agents of OPs, such as chlorpyrifos, dibutyl phthalate, and triclosan, thereby enhancing the toxicity level inside copepods and consequently elevating the negative effect on the marine system. MPs hinder the digestive tract, block food intake, and develop physiological stress within copepods leading to a disturbed planktonic environment [89]. MPs polymers affect the life of marine environment which makes the microbial colonies susceptible to these minute particles. The interaction between the colonies and MPs has resulted in the degradation of the microbiomes present throughout the water system. Microbial degradation is fatherly affecting the aquatic ecosystems inherent balance [90]. Overall, the MPs degrade the aquatic bodies actual productivity [91]. Although the marine species digest these MPs, this is causing many side effects on entire marine bodies as it also affects not only direct consumer but also affect indirect consumer through the food chain. The limited or no use of plastic, along with the development of biodegradable plastic, is the only way of fighting MPs contamination in all water bodies (Table 5).

Table 5. A detailed study of various marine organisms which are affected by MPs. [Click here to view]

4.3. Aquatic Ecosystem

In aquatic environments, MPs have the ability to affect a wide variety of creatures, either directly or indirectly through the trophic chain. The majority of research focused on acquiring data regarding the consumption of MPs by various organisms and species, typically summarizing the quantity and primary features of the plastic particles identified in the examined species. An analysis of 46 species from the Amazon River on Brazil's north coast revealed that 30% of the species had consumed MP particles, the majority of which were pellets (97.4%) [92]. MPs accumulation has been observed in a wide range of aquatic life, including planktonic species, invertebrates, and vertebrates, according to ecotoxicology research [93]. However, compared to marine organisms, freshwater organisms have far less evidence of ingesting MPs, both in terms of the number of studies done and the variety of species examined. The most common techniques for determining if MPs are present in the various tissues and organs of aquatic species include Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, Raman microscopy, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, and fluorescent spectroscopy [94]. However, none offer a quick, precise, and quantitative way to figure out how quickly MPs bioaccumulate. There is also a dearth of knowledge regarding the mechanisms underlying the bioaccumulation of MPs, their translocation into organs, cellular transport channels, and elimination kinetics (Table 6).

Table 6. Summary of abundance of MPs in aquatic organisms. [Click here to view]

5. ANALYSIS METHODS OF MPS

Monitoring work employs a wide range of methodologies to better understand the effects of MPs on the ecosystem. Three steps make up a thorough examination of MPs: MPs recovery, identification, and quantification, as well as MPs collection [108].

6. MPS STATUS IN INDIA

India needs to make coordinated efforts in waste management, recycling infrastructure development, and public awareness initiatives to combat MPs pollution. Improving wastewater treatment infrastructure, promoting eco-friendly alternatives, and fostering sustainable purchasing habits are essential measures in reducing the harm MPs in India cause to the environment and to people’s health. According to India, MPs come from a variety of sources including plastic waste generated by business businesses, households, and other public spaces. Inadequate waste management practices, such as insufficient garbage collection, disposal, and recycling, cause an environmental buildup of plastic waste. MPs may also be released during the washing of synthetic textiles as well as during the breakdown of larger plastic products such as bags and packaging.

India with its numerous rivers, lakes, and coastal areas in aquatic ecosystems that are vulnerable to MPs pollution [122,123]. Sources of MPs in aquatic ecosystem include the discharge of inadequately or improperly treated wastewater containing MPs, the disposal of plastic waste in water bodies, and the use of plastic mulch films in agriculture. Aquatic organisms can consume these MPs, potentially introducing them into the food chain [123]. India’s atmosphere contains MPs as airborne particles [8]. MPs’ air pollution is particularly common in urban areas with large population densities, industrial activity, and transportation congestion. MPs are present in the air due to wind dispersion from open landfills, burning of plastic debris, and vehicles [124]. MPs threaten India’s various ecosystems, which have a negative impact on ecosystem health. They can affect marine and freshwater organisms in aquatic habitats, including fish, shellfish, and other aquatic flora [13]. The consumption of MPs by these species has the potential to hurt them physically, obstruct their digestive systems, and maybe move MPs up the food chain. The influence of MPs on soil health, nutrient cycling, and potential consequences on terrestrial species are also raised by the presence of MPs in soil [125].

The plastics sector in India is rapidly expanding. Of the regions that consume plastics, Western India accounts for the highest share (47%) and is mostly concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Daman and Diu, Chhattisgarh, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. As a significant consumer, India produces over 26 million metric tonnes of plastic garbage annually from its average annual use of 11 kg of plastic per person [14]. Increased adherence to the plastic surface causes other species to be recruited or lost from the biofilm, and eventually this competition or the combined impacts of various bacteria forms a mature biofilm. Plastic waste is likely to endanger public health and reduce diversity while devaluing the aesthetic value of the aquatic environment [126].

The Indian government has taken action to address plastic pollution, particularly MPs. The “Plastic Waste Management Rules,” published by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change in 2018 aim to regulate the production, distribution, and use of plastic products. The “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan” (Clean India Mission), and among other initiatives, has been undertaken by the government to encourage the cleanliness and ethical trash disposal [127]. India is increasingly recognizing the pollution caused by MPs. Studies are being conducted by academics and environmental groups to determine the scope and effects of MPs pollution in various parts of the country.

7. MPS POLLUTION AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE

Public awareness and responsive activities have increased due to concerns about the effects of plastic and MPs pollution. Schools have implemented plastics education programmers, non-governmental organizations have started campaigns, and some businesses have promised to reduce their use of plastic [24]. The USA passed the Microbead-Free Waters Act in 2015 as part of a global response to the worsening MPs issue, outlawing the use of plastic microbeads in the production of personal hygiene products [128]. Furthermore, a number of nations, particularly those in the European Union, have begun to phase out the use of plastic microbeads in a variety of items, including cosmetics [129]. In 2018, Europe promoted the recycling of plastic products by adopting the “European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy” and putting additional environmental protection programs such as “Zero Plastics to Landfill” into action [130].

A study Du et al. [131] documented that the USA leads the world in plastic garbage production (42 million metric tonnes yearly), followed by the European Union, India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, the Russian Federation, Germany, and other nations. Beginning in 2020, China promoted “Opinions on Further Strengthening the Control of Plastic Pollution” at the level of the Far East nations [132]. It follows that most nations definitely want to phase out plastics and look for sustainable substitutes. Over 150 countries’ environment ministers made a commitment to significantly reduce the use of single-use plastic products (SUPs) by 2030 during the fourth United Nations Environment Assembly in March 2019 [131]. Following an earlier assembly resolution emphasizing the need for long-term ocean MPs cleanup, this step was taken. Furthermore, in May 2019, governments decided to amend the Basel Convention by formally requesting the importing nations' approval for contaminated plastic waste, as agreed upon 3 years prior [133]. Furthermore, in an effort to reduce the manufacture of these plastic materials, numerous nations across the world are now imposing fees on plastics that cannot be recycled [134].

8. CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS OF MPS POLLUTIONS

There are many interconnected environmental challenges in the world today, such as the link between biodiversity loss, climate change, and MPs pollution [135]. The association is readily explained by the significant amount of GHGs produced during the production of products based on MPs that need fossil fuels. As a result, after utilizing these goods, their waste products are discharged into the aquatic environment, where they negatively impact all living things, including top consumers, phytoplankton, and zooplankton [136]. This causes the ecosystem as a whole to become disturbed, leading to the irreversible loss of species and ecological diversity.

It is important to note that one of the main strategies and necessary first steps in addressing and managing all of these concerns is for the public to have a thorough understanding of environmental challenges, including its origins, effects, and mitigation strategies. However, the process of mitigating environmental challenges, notably MPs pollution, is hampered by a lack of fundamental understanding, unclear facts, and unambiguous information [137]. The problem is further compounded by widespread misconceptions among the general population, especially educated people, regarding the differences between plastics and MPs and the challenges associated with recognizing specific products made of MPs. This can be addressed by putting in place a number of measures, which will be covered in detail in this part, to raise public awareness of the issues surrounding MPs and encourage the creation of workable solutions.

Ensuring that all facets of MPs issues, including their many sources, types, effects, destinies, and other relevant elements, are taught in curricula at schools and universities is the first step toward MPs control. Students and young people can learn about this topic as early as possible by being introduced to it. This strategy might be put into practice by having students learn about the problem of MPs through a variety of topics, as recently shown at US high schools in the San Diego region [138]. Students should also be encouraged to write scientific papers and take part in research projects in order to gain a strong understanding of the subject and provide workable solutions for MPs problems. The American Chemical Society has provided a perfect example of this kind of strategy by introducing new rules to the plastics and polymer industry as well as cutting-edge research approaches to bachelor's students in the USA [139].

In many nations, including the UK, the public's knowledge of MPs has increased thanks to the media. For instance, the British Broadcasting Corporation has created a number of television programmers and documentaries that encourage people to refrain from using SUPs by presenting the problem of plastic pollution in an approachable and straightforward manner. By these initiatives, the media has encouraged individuals to use less plastic and assisted in educating the public about the effects of MPs on the environment [140]. The media is in charge of educating the public, disseminating guidelines, and assisting political parties, constitutional authorities, and legislators in reaching just choices and practical solutions for a number of pressing environmental challenges [141]. Furthermore, the internet and its various social media platforms have emerged as a potent resource for comprehensive and broad scientific information regarding MPs [142].

The public's view of consumerism is another strategy. Due to the industrial revolution that began in the 18th century and, more notably, the substantial economic growth and affluence that followed World War II, excessive consumerism became the norm in the majority of countries [142]. People began to live a lavish lifestyle as a result, and they began to place greater importance on purchases and those who made larger ones. One of the primary causes of the substantial growth in trash production was this social conception, which extended beyond MPs to include other waste products including food, medicine and cosmetics, clothing, and electronic devices such as computers and phones [143]. While it may not be an easy challenge to change the way people behave in society, it is imperative to help governments manage the growing problem of MPs and limit the massive amounts of waste materials released into the environment.

It is important to note that government initiatives have successfully decreased the use of plastic in several nations. For instance, several nations have imposed price increases, tariffs, or bans on plastic carrier bags in an effort to encourage people to use reusable bags and drastically cut down on plastic usage. After a plastic bag ban was implemented in China, the country's consumption of plastic bags fell by 49% [144].

After a plastic bag tax was implemented in Washington, the state saw an 80% decline in the use of plastic bags [145] and the UK experienced 8%–85% decreases following the introduction of a plastic bag fee. These instances highlight the major influence that laws and regulations may have on cutting down on plastic usage and addressing the problem of MPs in the environment. The policies' implementation was not without its difficulties, considering the many advantages that plastic carrying bags provide, including durability, longevity, and water resistance. Nonetheless, the positive outcomes showed how well limits, international collaboration between various countries, and most importantly raising public awareness may reduce the use of plastics and MPs.

9. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

The majority of MPs pollution in ecosystems is released by human-caused activities such as daily living, business, transportation, and agriculture. Currently, there are problems with MPs pollution linked to hazardous substances that have a negative impact on the ecosystem [146]. It has been found that MPs live in an environment where dangerous substances can act as a vector for their movement throughout ecosystems. The presence and dispersion of MPs in ecosystems may have an impact on human food supplies as well as fresh and marine habitats [147]. Because MPs are unable to break down, they build up in plants and animals throughout the food chain and seriously harm both the creatures and humans.

It is possible to suggest important prospective tactics to address these problems, such as implementing technical standards and laws, raising awareness, and developing engineering solutions It has been found that microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) obtained from biota facilitate the biodegradation of MPs aging [148]. It was also investigated how highly efficient cutting-edge technology, such as membrane bioreactors, maybe, with clearance rates of up to 99%. The aging process of MP can be effectively accelerated by applying advanced oxidation processes and photo catalytic technology to eliminate MP contamination.

MP particles linked to chemical toxicity and microbiological toxins may have an impact on human health. It draws attention to the in-depth knowledge research deficit and makes fundamental research recommendations for scientists and policymakers [149]. Future studies that clarify MPs function as important sources of hydrophobic organic contaminants and HMs in the environmental media are crucial. MP debris can travel infinitely through the atmosphere and soils, and its impact on both terrestrial and aquatic environments must be carefully considered [150]. Evaluating transport mechanisms, MP contamination fate and pathways, and ecological sinks is crucial.

The carbon cycle, wildlife, human health, and biodiversity are all seriously threatened by the presence and behavior of MPs in freshwater and marine sediments [151]. To fully comprehend MP contamination sources and explore the ecological impacts of MPs in various ecosystems, more research is required. Developing a database on the distribution and travel behavior of MPs is crucial in order to investigate the environmental risks that MP-conveying OPs pose as well as their effects on ecosystems. Effective management methods can be created to mitigate MPs contamination and its associated ecological effects by carrying out comprehensive research and effect evaluations [152].

The ability of biological technologies to directly degrade MPs is restricted. Consequently, it is necessary to look at laboratory-accelerated testing that can replicate various aging processes and variables [153]. Additionally, microbial remediation presents a viable alternative for MP breakdown; nonetheless, additional effective microbial strains have to be obtained and fostered [154]. Their efficiency of degradation can be paired with cutting-edge treatment methods. As an alternate strategy to raise environmental consciousness and protect the environment, commercial plastic items made from natural resources should be taken into consideration. By reducing their carbon footprint, bio-derived polymers can help accomplish the circular economy and the Sustainable Development Goals by removing SUPs. The properties of MP polymers and dangerous micropollutants must be incorporated with the ecological effect evaluation or exploration. Specifically, it is important to understand how MPs could affect the (eco) toxicity of PAHs in their natural environments.

10. CONCLUSIONS

Plastic items are widely utilized and difficult to break down; thus, it is certain that plastic pollution will have an ongoing negative impact on the ecological environment for a very long time. The consequences of MPs on the environment have been brought to light recently. A glaring example of the magnitude of the plastic problem is the quantity of plastic that has ended up in the environment, including the land, ocean, and even the air. The ecosystem's balance will be upset and the animal population will be impacted by MP's pollution. If management operations are not handled well, this will happen. The eco-toxicology of MPs, their source distribution, migration, and transformation, as well as enhanced analytical techniques for sampling, classification, and identification, and the ecological health risk assessment system for MPs pollution should all be further investigated in the future. More research is required to understand the toxicological mechanism and influencing factors of MPs. To prevent harm to human health, pay attention to the transfer effect of MPs in the food chain, as well as their transfer path and control measures. Scientific innovation would have to receive more attention since it would facilitate the production of environmentally suitable substitutes for plastics. Furthermore, the present review would indicate MPs are a global issue and all nations should encourage their monitoring strategies collectively in order to estimate MP abundances globally. Additionally, lawmakers and the government should enact laws with force, impose “zero tolerance” on the use of megaplastics and MPs, and require corporations to substitute biodegradable components for non-biodegradable components. To address the issues and reduce plastic pollution, governments, businesses, international organizations, and consumers must work together.

11. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The author reports no financial or any other conflicts of interest in this work.

12. FUNDING

There is no funding to report.

13. ETHICAL APPROVALS

This study does not involve experiments on animals or human subjects.

14. PUBLISHER’S NOTE

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. This journal remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliation.

15. USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)-ASSISTED TECHNOLOGY

The authors declares that they have not used artificial intelligence (AI)-tools for writing and editing of the manuscript, and no images were manipulated using AI.

16. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

All authors made substantial contributions to conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; took part in drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; agreed to submit to the current journal; gave final approval of the version to be published; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All the authors are eligible to be an author as per the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) requirements/guidelines.

17. DATA AVAILABILITY

All the data is available with the authors and shall be provided upon request.

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